The Colonization Of Africa and Origins of Development Project
The Colonization Of Africa and Origins of Development Project
- In fact, Africa was inhabited by people of various ethnic groups with their own distinct societies and social hierarchies: Some examples:
- Ashanti Kingdom:
Founded in the 17th Century…Osei Tutu I
The symbol of power, the Golden Stool, is said to be the home of the soul of the Ashantis.
The imperial center was Kumasi, and to this day Odwira is the festival day in which Asante kings gather in Kumasi to renew their loyalty to their gods.
They were defeated by the British in the early 20th Century, and their kings were exiled to the Seychelles Islands. They were allowed to return in the late 1920’s
Africa Before European Domination
- Divided amongst ethnic and linguistic groups
- Europeans had little contact with interior Africans due to disease, travel of the rivers and African military.
- Missionaries, explores and humanitarians were the only humans to explore the interior of Africa
Colonial Europe’s Misconceptions of the African Continent and Society
- Africa was one country, not a collection of independent states
- African society was not organized nor advanced socially or technologically
- Africans were little more than uncivilized barbarians
- Africans were non-religious heathens
- There was no social structure to pre-colonial African society
- Colonization was for the good of the Africans and the continent as a whole
- Africa on the whole was an uninhabited, inhospitable place (The “Virgin Myth”).
- The “taking” of Africa was going to be an easy process with few consequences for Europeans
Dr. Livingstone, I presume?
The great
- Dr. Livingstone sparks the imperialistic race in the Congo.
Went on a mission trip for years. People thought he was dead.
Henry Stanley, a U.S. reporter was hired to go find him. He did.
Stanley continued to explore Africa himself. He was contacted by King Leopold III to negotiate for land.
This sparks the French, GB, Germany, Italy, Portugal and Spain to start claiming parts of Africa.
Welcome: The Scramble for and Partition of Africa
In 1884, to avoid conflict amongst themselves, European leaders met at the Berlin Conference to set up rules for colonizing Africa. No Africans were invited.
Berlin Conference
Berlin Conference
The European powers agreed that before they could claim territory they would have to set up an outpost. Whoever was the first to build the outpost gained that area of land.
Berlin Conference
Berlin Conference
Five Major Colonial Powers In Africa
- Great Britain
- France
- Portugal
- Belgium
- Germany
- In addition to these, there was Spain, Italy and the Dutch.
Legacy
- In their effort to create an empire the Europeans redrew the map of Europe.
When the “Scramble for Africa” was over, 10,000 identifiable ethnic, religious and cultural groups had been pushed into 40 states or protectorates.
Rwanda, Congo, Sudan, South Africa
- As part of their power struggle, pieces of Africa were traded around by the Europeans
National boundaries were straight lines drawn on a map, disregarding terrain or ethnicity.
Long time enemies are together – Uganda, Chad, Sudan, Nigeria
Groups divided arbitrarily = Congo, Somaliland
Colonialism: Definition and Kinds
- Definition: colonialism –military, economic, cultural oppression & domination of one country over another.
- Kinds:
1. Invasion-colonization;
2. Settlement-colonization;
3. Internal Colonialism;
4. Neo-Colonialism
Basic Reasons for European Colonization of Africa
- Geo-Strategic: Since Africa was being colonized it was important that the European powers all get a piece in order to keep up with their enemies.
- Religious: Colonization was done on religious grounds…bringing Christianity to the “heathen” Africans.
- Mercantilist: Free labor (Africans) was available for the taking, labor that would provide goods and resources for colonial powers that operated on mercantilist policies.
- Economic: harvesting the vast natural resources for European good (linked to mercantilist), would provide a boost to the sagging economies of Europe as well as provide markets for manufactured goods (forced buying of European goods by Africans.
The industrial revolution
Looking for new markets and raw materials
European Superiority
Racism- they are better then everyone
Social Darwinism- survival of the fittest
To civilize and westernize the people
Advances in technology
Machine guns (Maxim), steam engines, a drug created in 1829 to protect them from malaria
Africa had no Unity
Europeans used the rival groups against each other
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CHARACTERISTICS OF COLONIALIST REGIMES
(British, German, French, etc)
Characteristics of British Colonialism
- Indirect rule: Basically the imposed government on African colonial territories through Africans. The problem here is that the British used Africans to impose their version of rule rather than letting the African institutional rule take over.
- Warrant Chiefs: Puppet Africans who worked for the British system.
- Rule of Law: British law, when in conflict with local law always took priority. This again is an example of indirect rule and imposition of rule.
- Military influence: When push came to shove, the British were not shy about using their military power in order to make sure that their rule of law was followed. The advantage of guns made them seem superior to the native Africans and contributed to the psychosis of domination by the European powers, in this case, the British.
Characteristics of French Colonialism
- Assimilation: This was the dominant method of French involvement in Africa. They chose to attempt to supplant traditional African culture with French culture. Teach the Africans French language, French dress, French mannerisms.
- The basic problem: How is one to truly become French if they look different (skin tone)? This cannot be supplanted. Color is the definer. This resulted in a class of people known as Evolues…those Africans who were educated in the French language, manner of dress, and etiquette. The Evolues were the ones who ultimately led the independence movement from French colonialism.
- Note: There was an arrogance and an air of superiority by the French over the Evolues…this played games on the mind of the Africans and led to the psychosis that was to plague them after decolonization.
Characteristics of Belgian Colonialism
- Berlin Conference of 1884 gave Belgium the Congo.
- Overt exploitation: Rather then the policy of assimilation that the French employed.
- Dehumanizing: because of the barbaric treatment at the hands of the Belgians. They operated on the dictum, “We will tell you what is good for you, don’t question us.”
- Force Publique: Peace keeping force in Africa. Their only job was to support the imperial enterprise and forcefully put down any insurgencies. This force was made up of trained Belgians, NOT Africans.
Belgian Colonialism Cont….
- Zappo Zaps: A tribe of tough guys that were recruited by the Belgians to enforce the “Red” rubber campaigns. They were ruthless, physically strong, and not from the area that they were enforcing. This is the signature of Belgian rule…ruthless and only in Africa for monetary gain.
- “Red” Rubber Campaigns: Zappo Zaps bringing back a worker’s hand as proof that you killed someone to establish the notion that if the workers didn’t work hard extracting rubber from the rubber trees for the Belgians, they were going to be killed.
- Result? The Belgian Congo was the least prepared of all the African colonies for independence as they were given nothing, but were stripped of their wealth and the people killed.
Characteristics Of Portuguese Colonialism
- Much like Belgium, Portugal adopted a policy of abuse rather than assimilation or indirect rule.
- All Roads Lead To Portugal: Conscript labor, poor working conditions, and social stratification lead to the disembowelment African society in the colonial holdings of Portugal.
- Racial Stratification: This idea was central in the Portuguese occupation of Africa. It can be said that race was central in the Portuguese colonial theme.
- Vocabulary Words that reflect racial stratification:
Chibolo-the conscript labor force
Indigenas-Africans native to the land (about 97% of the population)
Sipias-These were Indigenas empowered to control the rest of the population
Characteristics Of Portuguese Colonialism cont….
- Assimilados-Indigenas who became “Portuguese” Roughly about 10% of the population. They became Sipias, teachers, supervisors, machine workers.
- Mestizos-People of mixed race. These people could go to Portugal. In general, they were better educated and rose up through Portuguese society in Africa.
- It should be noted that the Portuguese created a pyramidal societal structure. This was much different than other colonial nations and can be compared to the Indian Caste System in order to understand it. Each group had its place, but one…the Degradados…the lowest in that society had no room to move up the social scale. They can be compared to the serfs of Eastern Europe in the 18th Century or the Pariahs (untouchables) of the Indian Caste System.
- The Mestizos, much like the Evolues, were the ones that led the independence movement in the Portuguese territories, with dire consequences as we shall see later.
Characteristics Of German Colonialism
- German colonization of Africa is characterized by extremely harsh and brutal treatment of the native Africans
- It has come to be known as the German “Iron Fist”
- The lasting memory of German colonization is the Herero Rebellion which took place from 1903-1907. In response to the rebellion over poaching of cattle and treatment of native Africans, the Germans poisoned the water supply killing 75-80% of the Herero people. Those that were captured, were not allowed to own land or animals, but were made slaves.
Mike DiMatteo: Image taken from the following website
coas.missouri.edu/…/jpattrickwwi/ nonsliced/ger_helmet.jpg
Characteristics Of German Colonialism
- There were few instances of preparing or helping the people assimilate or improve themselves through the “system”. The native Africans were seen as little more than animals.
- was the general responsible for the massive extermination of the Herero people
- Maji-Maji Rebellion of 1905-1907 (Tanzania) was another instance of a people who wouldn’t take the harsh treatment any longer and thought it better to die than be degraded. In short, the Africans there were nothing more than slave labor in the building of an irrigation system.
Short Term Consequences of European Colonialism in Africa
- 1884-85 Berlin Conference established boundaries now considered “sacred” even though it mixed ethnic groups that didn’t want to be mixed or had preexisting ethic hatred/prejudice
- Result? African nations have endured decades of internal strife as they try to reconcile some of these ethnic differences
Short Term Consequences of European Colonialism in Africa
- Decolonization methods varied according to the European nation that was in control, thereby handicapping some more than others, but making the transition poor for all.
- Britain, France: turned over the nations, but kept them dependent on their help in the form of aid, favored nation status. This has created a type of neo-colonialism among many African states that still rely on the British or French. It should be noted here that after WWII, neither the French or British were capable of holding on to their colonial possessions in Africa as they had neither the power militarily or the resources financially.
- Portugal, Belgium, Germany: Ethically, morally and and sadly destructive of the African nations that they were in control of. They didn’t leave those states in any condition to take care of themselves. Portugal literally left, taking everything of value with them, and leaving the native Africans to fend for themselves in a world they were not equipped to survive in.
Short Term Consequences of European Colonialism in Africa
- Result? Economic struggle because of a reliance on one crop (monocropism), poor education, disorganized and disjointed societies without an identity. One of the great tragedies of the 20th Century that goes ignored in many circles.
- Uneven Development: Some African nations such as Nigeria have developed as they have had the leadership and resources (petroleum) to cope in the 20th Century world. Others such as The Congo (DRC) have been struggling to survive largely because of the shape that they were left in when they were decolonized.
- Internal Strife: This refers to the struggle between those that collaborated with the colonial powers and those that did not. There is a division there now that the powers have gone. The collaborators know how the game works, but there is resentment by those that resisted. Once again, dividing society.
Long Term Ramifications of European Colonialism in Africa
- Disjointed governments that are racked by graft, dictatorships, and internal strife
- Horrible food shortages because of a lack of government organization
- Greedy dictators that use the people for their own means and strip the nation of its wealth for their own use
- Over dependence on foreign aid, European favoritism toward former colonies and international involvement in internal affairs
Long Term Ramifications of European Colonialism in Africa
- Overpopulation of sub-Saharan nations resulting in overuse of national resources, unrealistic pressure on the arable land, and furthering the poor economic conditions that currently exist
- Rise of multiparty systems: An attempt to represent all Africans in a nation in the political process. This has been unsuccessful in most places, with ethnicity being the determining factor in voting rather than the best candidate winning
Long Term Ramifications of European Colonialism in Africa
- A loss in untold billions of African resources that should have belonged to Africans. This is money and resources that will never be recovered. The result? African nations that are in debt with almost no chance of getting out of it, creating a situation in which that debt will be passed on to future generations…HIPIC (Heavily Indebted Poor Income Countries).
Long Term Ramifications of European Colonialism in Africa
- On the Positive:
Africa for Africans…they have the chance to make their own destiny
A rise of cultural revivalism. Africans are finding their roots and rediscovering their glorious pre-colonial past
Political vibrancy…especially where multiparty systems are in effect. More voices are being heard
There is no doubt that European colonialism was more than devastating to the African continent, and the ideas represented here are just the tip of the iceberg. However, Africa and Africans are and always have been resilient and will no doubt recover.
New Ties to Bind
- With direct control lost
Critics of Globilisation argue that the IMF and World Bank are promoting a new version of control.
Often referred to as Economic Imperialism
Instead of direct military-political control, neocolonialist powers employ financial, and trade policies to dominate less powerful countries. This amounts to a de facto control over less powerful nations
In what ways do we see the effects of imperialism in this picture?
Roots of The Development Project
1940s’ to 1970’s
- Stepping back into history
Enlightenment and the concept of development
Poorer countries and the legacy of colonialism
Development pacesetters and late-comers
Endogenous and exogenous forces in the process of development
(1) Enlightenment:
Progress and Modernity
- Modern versus traditional
Late middle ages: religious dogma
Modern era: science
- Modern dwarfs standing on the shoulders of historical giants….
Descartes
Enlightenment approach: accumulated, generalizable knowledge
Secularization: both natural order and social orders can be understood through reason and hard work
- Hence, concept of development
Enlightenment: Contd
- Meanwhile, French Revolution and Industrial Revolution acted as catalysts of modernity
New social relationships
“Liberty, Equality, Fraternity”
- Linear thinkers, Stages of Growth
Simon and Comte (French sociology)
Karl Marx, Max Weber: rationalization of authority
Durkheim: division of labor and societal change
Simmel, Spencer: social Darwinism
- ‘Cult of progress’ came to dominate postwar social theories
Belief in progress is the Prozac of the thinking classes
(2) Colonialism
- 15th to 20th centuries: Spain, Portugal, Holland, France and Britain
Colonies of settlement (Aztec, Inca)
Colonies of rule
Playing off of ethnic/racial/tribal divisions” Africa
- Changes in the economy, administration, education systems:
simulate progress along the European path
- Colonial division of labor
Extraction and production of raw materials and products that were unavailable in Europe
Raw materials exported into Europe (Sugar cane to sugar)
Undermining local systems (agriculture, culture, gender)
Specialized export monoculture
India: cotton
Between 1890’s and 1940’s, commercial crops: cotton, jute, tea, peanuts and sugar cane grew 85%
Food crop production dropped 7%, with population growth of 40%
Ever increasing demand for luxury goods and raw industrial material; expansion of indentured laborers into other areas of the World (plantations)
Periphery looses its own ‘culture’: smaller specialized jobs disappear
With population increase, more need for stuff!
©Pine Forge Press, an imprint of Sage Publications, 2008.
Decolonization
- Colonial subjects used European discourse of rights and sovereignty against their own subjugation.
Haitian revolution, first successful independence movement
Turned rhetoric of French Revolution successfully against French colonialism
- Resistance to colonialism evolved
Early 19th century independence of Latin American republics
Peak of decolonization when World War II weakened the French, Dutch, British and Belgian states’ power
- The nation-state
Offered formal political independence
But sovereignty was shaped by cultural and economic legacies of colonialism
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Decolonization
- Freedom – from mass movement, social psychological establishments
3 ways:
Non-violent: Gandhi in India
Violent: Mao Mao in Kenya
Nationalizing resources, mid-path: Egypt (military/bureaucratic insurgency)
- Domino effect: 25 countries in three years gaining independence in Africa
- New World Order:
105 new states joining the United Nations from 1945 to 1981; sovereignty for millions of non-Europeans
Idealism: First and Third World coordinated to stimulate economic growth, social improvements and promote political citizenship
New national leaders proclaimed goal of equality in the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Decolonization and Development
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- Randomly drawn borders with colonization creates problems after decolonization: ethnic, racial, tribal conflicts, power struggles
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- Whites left with all the know-how
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- Not enough educated people
-
- Rise of the military power/autocracy/dictatorships
-
- Western backed coup’s
-
- Economic instability-not enough financial backup and knowledge
-
- Fake economic promises to gain political power
- Third World-as a result of decolonization, impact of modernization theory
©Pine Forge Press, an imprint of Sage Publications, 2008.
Decolonization and Development
- Development
Pragmatic effort to preserve colonies by improving material conditions
Colonial subjects demanded development as an entitlement
- New meaning of development with decolonization
Influence of French and US ideologies of liberal-nationalism
Ideal of sovereignty, converting subjects into citizens
Pursue economic development for social justice
- U.S. development model as an ideal division of labor
Internal division of labor: city and countryside prosper together
But “dustbowl” of 1930s showed ecological limits
U.S. model of capital-intensive industrial farming as norm
Disastrous global ecological consequences
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©Pine Forge Press, an imprint of Sage Publications, 2008.
The Development Project
- President Harry S. Truman’s 1949 speech
proclaimed development program calling for “helping the least fortunate”
new paradigm between developed and undeveloped regions
Gustavo Esteva: On this day, “two billion people became underdeveloped”
- Development required restoring capitalist markets to sustain First World wealth through access to strategic natural resources and opportunity for Third World nations to emulate First World civilization and living standards
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©Pine Forge Press, an imprint of Sage Publications, 2008.
International vs. National Division of Labor
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The U.S. development model was the “inner-directed” version on the right, in comparison with the British imperial model (as “workshop of the world”).
©Pine Forge Press, an imprint of Sage Publications, 2008.
Postwar Decolonization and the Rise of the Third World
- Post-World War II geopolitical divisions:
1st World: capitalist, Western
2nd World: communist, Soviet bloc
3rd World: postcolonial bloc
- Economic disparity
First World had 65% of world income with only 20% of world’s population
Third World had 67% of world population with only 18% of its income
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The Third World was mainly most poor, food-growing rural dwellers
©Pine Forge Press, an imprint of Sage Publications, 2008.
The Development Project
- Presented as universal, natural and uncontentious; obliterated its colonial roots
- But Third World states could not repeat the European experience of development by exploiting labor and resources of other societies
- Devalued non-European cultures and discounted what the West learned from the non-European world
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©Pine Forge Press, an imprint of Sage Publications, 2008.
Ingredients of the Development Project
- A political and intellectual response to world conditions at time of decolonization
- Understood social change as economic
- Nation-State as framework
Territorially defined political systems based on 19th century European government-citizen relationship
Arbitrary boundaries drawn in Africa
In spite of pan-African federalists
Divided ancestral territories, separated peoples; creating states divided by conflict
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©Pine Forge Press, an imprint of Sage Publications, 2008.
Ingredients of the Development Project
- Economic Growth
Objective of 1945 UN Charter was “rising standard of living,” measured by gross national product (GNP) or national average of per capita income
- Introduction of market system
Based on private property and accumulation of wealth
Overcoming “traditional obstacles”, ie: wealth sharing, cooperative labor
Introduction of banking, accounting, education, stock markets, legal systems, and public infrastructure
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Western economists believed growth required the introduction of a market system, overcoming “traditional obstacles” to capital accumulation.
Decolonization and Development
-
- Randomly drawn borders with colonization creates problems after decolonization: ethnic, racial, tribal conflicts, power struggles
-
- Whites left with all the know-how
-
- Not enough educated people
-
- Rise of the military power/autocracy/dictatorships
-
- Western backed coup’s
-
- Economic instability-not enough financial backup and knowledge
-
- Fake economic promises to gain political power
- Third World-as a result of decolonization, impact of modernization theory
*
Web address:
The industrial revolution
Looking for new markets and raw materials
European Superiority
Racism- they are better then everyone
Social Darwinism- survival of the fittest
To civilize and westernize the people
Advances in technology
Machine guns (Maxim), steam engines, a drug created in 1829 to protect them from malaria
Africa had no Unity
Europeans used the rival groups against each other
*
*
*
*
*
The U.S. development model was the “inner-directed” version on the right, in comparison with the British imperial model (as “workshop of the world”).
*
The Third World was mainly most poor, food-growing rural dwellers
*
*
*
Western economists believed growth required the introduction of a market system, overcoming “traditional obstacles” to capital accumulation.