social problem-solving
social problem-solving
In this chapter we describe the social problem-solving model that has generated most of the research and training programs presented in the remaining chapters of this volume. We also describe the major assessment methods and instruments that have been used to measure social problem- solving ability and performance in research as well as clinical practice.
The term social problem solving refers to the process of problem solving as it occurs in the natural environment or “real world” (D’Zurilla & Nezu, 1982). The adjective social is not meant to limit the study of problem solving to any particular type of problem. I t is used in this context only to highlight the fact that we are interested in problem solving that influences one’s adap- tive functioning in the real-life social environment. Hence, the study of social problem solving deals with all types of problems that might affect a person’s functioning, including impersonal problems (e.g., insufficient finances, stolen property), personal or intrapersonal problems (emotional, behavioral, cognie tive, or health problems), interpersonal problems (e.g., marital conflicts, family disputes), as well as broader community and societal problems (e.g., crime, racial discrimination). The model of social problem solving presented in this chapter was originally introduced by D’Zurilla and Goldfried (1971)
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and later expanded and revised by D’Zurilla, Nezu, and Maydeu-Olivares (2002; D’Zurilla, 1986; D’Zurilla & Nezu, 1982, 1990, 1999; Maydeu- Olivares & D’Zurilla, 1995, 1996; Nezu & D’Zurilla, 1989).’
MAJOR CONCEPTS
The three major concepts in the D’Zurilla et al. model are (a) problem solving, (b) problem, and (c) solution. It is also important for theory, research, and practice to distinguish between the concepts of problem solving and solution implementation. The definitions presented are based on concepts previously discussed by Davis (1966), D’Zurilla and Goldfried (1971), D’Zurilla and Nezu (1982, 1999), and Skinner (1953).
Problem Solving
As it occurs in the natural environment, problem solving is defined as the self-directed cognitive-behavioral process by which an individual, couple, or group attempts to identify or discover effective solutions for specific problem encountered in everyday living. More specifically, this cognitive-behavioral process (a) makes available a variety of potentially effective solutions for a particular problem and (b) increases the probability of selecting the most effective solution from among the various alternatives (D’Zurilla & Goldfried, 1971). As this definition implies, social problem solving is con- ceived as a conscious, rational, effortful, and purposeful activity. Depending on the problem-solving goals, this process may be aimed at changing the problematic situation for the better, reducing the emotional distress that it produces, or both.
Problem
A problem (or problematic situation) is defined as any life situation or task (present or anticipated) that demands a response for adaptive function- ing but no effective response is immediately apparent or available to the person or people confronted with the situation because of the presence of one or more obstacles. The demands in a problematic situation may originate in the environment (e.g., objective task demands) or within the person
Several variations and modifications of this social problem-solving model have appeared in the clinical, counseling, educational, and health psychology literature (see Black & Frauenknecht, 1990; Crick & Dodge, 1994; Elias & Clabby, 1992; Frauenknecht & Black, 2003; Spivack et al., 1976; Tisdelle & St. Lawrence, 1986). In addition, similar models and perspectives have also been described in the literature on geropsychology and organizational psychology (see Poon, Rubin, & Wilson, 1989; Sinnott, 1989; Stemberg & Wagner, 1986).
12 D’ZURILLA, NEZU, A N D MAYDEU-OLIVARES
(e.g., a personal goal, need, or commitment). The obstacles might include novelty, ambiguity, unpredictability, conflicting stimulus demands, perfor- mance skill deficits, or lack of resources. A particular problem might be a single time-limited event (e.g., missing a train to work, an acute illness), a series of similar or related events (e.g., repeated unreasonable demands from a boss, repeated violations of curfew by an adolescent), or a chronic, ongoing situation (e.g., continuous pain, boredom, or feelings of loneliness).
An interpersonal problem is a special kind of real-life problem in which the obstacle is a conflict in the behavioral demands or expectations of two or more people in a relationship (Jacobson &a Margolin, 1979). In this context, interpersonal problem solving may be described as a cognitive- interpersonal process aimed at identifying or discovering a resolution to the conflict that is acceptable or satisfactory to all parties involved. Hence, according to this view, interpersonal problem solving is a “win-win” ap- proach to resolving conflicts or disputes rather than a “win-lose” approach.
Solution
A solution is a situation-specific coping response or response pattern (cognitive or behavioral) that is the product or outcome of the problem- solving process when it is applied to a specific problematic situation. An effective solution is one that achieves the problem-solving goal (i.e., changing the situation for the better or reducing the emotional distress that it pro- duces), while at the same time maximizing other positive consequences and minimizing negative consequences. The relevant consequences include both personal and social outcomes, long-term as well as short-term. With specific reference to an interpersonal problem, an effective solution is one that resolves the conflict or dispute by providing an outcome that is acceptable or satisfactory to all parties involved. This outcome may involve a consensus, compromise, or negotiated agreement that accommodates the interests and well-being of all concerned parties.
Problem Solving Versus Solution Implementation
Our theory of social problem solving distinguishes between the con- cepts of problem solving and solution implementation. These two processes are conceptually different and require different sets of skills. Problem solving refers to the process of finding solutions to specific problems, whereas solution implementation refers to the process of currying out those solutions in the actual problematic situations. Problem-solving skills are assumed to be gen- eral, whereas solution-implementation skills are expected to vary across situations depending on the type of problem and solution. Because they are different, problem-solving skills and solution-implementation skills are not
THEORY AND ASSESSMENT 13
always correlated. Hence, some individuals might possess poor problem- solving skills but good solution-implementation skills or vice versa. Because both sets of skills are required for effective functioning or social competence, it is often necessary in problem-solving therapy to combine training in problem-solving skills with training in other social and behavioral perfor- mance skills to maximize positive outcomes (McFall, 1982).
DIMENSIONS OF SOCIAL PROBLEM-SOLVING ABILITY
One of the major assumptions of this theory is that social problem- solving ability is not a unity construct but, rather, a multidimensional construct consisting of several different, albeit related, components. In the original model described by D’Zurilla and Goldfried (1971) and later ex- panded and refined by D’Zurilla and Nezu (1982, 1990), it was assumed that social problem-solving ability consisted of two general, partially independent components: (a) problem orientation and (b) problem-solving skills (later referred to as “problem-solving proper,’’ D’Zurilla &I. Nezu, 1999, and then “problem-solving style,” D’Zurilla et al., 2002). Problem onentation was de- scribed as a metacognitive process involving the operation of a set of rela- tively stable cognitive-emotional schemas that reflect a person’s general beliefs, appraisals, and feelings about problems in living, as well as his or her own problem-solving ability. This process was believed to serve an important motivational function in social problem solving. Problem-solving skills, on the other hand, referred to the cognitive and behavioral activities by which a person attempts to understand problems and find effective ‘(solu- tions” or ways of coping with them. The model identified four major skills: (a) problem definition and formulation, (b) generation of alternative solu- tions, (c) decision making, and (d) solution implementation and verification (D’Zurilla & Goldfried, 1971). These skills will be described in more depth.
Based on this theoretical model, D’Zurilla and Nezu (1990) developed the Social Problem-Solving Inventory (SPSI), which consisted of two major scales: the Problem Orientation Scale (POS) and the Problem-Solving Skills Scale (PSSS). The items in each scale were designed to reflect both positive (constructive or facilitative) and negative (dysfunctional) characteristics. The assumption that problem orientation and problem-solving skills are different, albeit related, components of social problem-solving ability was supported by findings that showed that the POS items correlated relatively high with the total POS score and relatively low with the total PSSS score, whereas the reverse was true for the PSSS items (D’Zurilla & Nezu, 1990).
In later studies, Maydeu-Olivares and D’Zurilla (1995,1996) conducted exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses on the SPSI. Although the results showed moderate support for the original two-factor model (viz.,
14 D’ZURILLA, NEZU, AND MAYDEU-OLIVARES
problem orientation and problem-solving skills), a better fitting model was found to be a five-factor model consisting of two different, albeit related, problem-orientation dimensions and three different problem-solving styles. The two problem-orientation dimensions are positive problem orienta- tion and negative problem orientation, whereas the three problem-solving styles are rational problem solving (i.e., effective problem-solving skills), impulsivity-carelessness style, and avoidance style. These five dimensions of social problem-solving ability are measured by the Social Problem-Solving Inventory-Revised (SPSI-R; D’Zurilla et al., 2002), which will be de- scribed later. Positive problem orientation and rational problem solving are constructive dimensions that have been found to be related to adaptive func- tioning and positive psychological well-being, whereas negative problem orientation, impulsivity-carelessness style, and avoidance style are dysfunc- tional dimensions that have been found to be associated with maladaptive functioning and psychological distress (see reviews by D’Zurilla & Nezu, 1999; D’Zurilla et al., 2002). As would be expected, the constructive dimen- sions are positively correlated with each other and negatively correlated with the dysfunctional dimensions and vice versa (D’Zurilla et al., 2002). Each dimension is described later in the chapter.
Problem-Orientation Dimensions
Positive problem orientation is a constructive problem-solving cognitive set that involves the general disposition to (a) appraise a problem as a “challenge” (i.e., opportunity for benefit or gain), (b) believe that problems are solvable (“optimism”), (c) believe in one’s personal ability to solve problems successfully (“problem-solving self-efficacy”), (d) believe that suc- cessful problem solving takes time and effort, and (e) commit oneself to solving problems with dispatch rather than avoiding them. In contrast, negative problem Orientation is a dysfunctional or inhibitive cognitive- emotional set that involves the general tendency to (a) view a problem as a significant threat to well-being (psychological, social, economic), (b) doubt one’s own personal ability to solve problems successfully (“low problem- solving self-efficacy”), and (c) easily become frustrated and upset when confronted with problems (“low frustration tolerance”).
Problem-Solving Styles
Rational problem solving is a constructive problem-solving style that is defined as the rational, deliberate, and systematic application of effective problem-solving skills. As noted earlier, this model identifies four major problem-solving skills: (a) problem definition and formulation, (b) genera- tion of alternative solutions, (c) decision making, and (d) solution