Awakening

Awakening

Awakening

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Awakening: An Introduction to the History of Eastern Thought engages stu- dents with lively anecdotes, essential primary and secondary sources, an accessible writing style, and a clear historical approach. The text focuses primarily on India, China, and Japan, while showing the relationships that exist between Eastern and Western traditions. Patrick Bresnan consistently links the past to the present, so students may see that Eastern traditions, however ancient their origins, are living traditions and relevant to modern times.

New to this Sixth Edition:

• A new introduction that provides a helpful overview of each of the nine- teen chapters and important connections between them

• An improved explanation of the nature of Vedanta philosophy, and a more logical organization of the Key Elements of the Upanishads in Chapter 3

• An extensive rewrite of Chapter 5, which deals with the subject of Ash- tanga Yoga as expressed in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali

• A greatly improved presentation of Buddha’s “Four Noble Truths” in Chapter 10

• A total recasting of the teaching of Nagarjuna in the Madhyamaka sec- tion of Chapter 12

• A clearer and easier to understand presentation of the teaching of the Dao De Jing in Chapter 14

• A major revision of Chapter 18 so as to clearly distinguish Chinese Chan from Japanese Zen

• Greater emphasis throughout, where pertinent, on the role of meditation practice in all Eastern traditions

• Revised and updated Questions for Discussion at the end of each chapter • New photos and two newly produced videos prepared by the author for

the book’s companion website: http://patrickbresnan.com/.

Patrick S. Bresnan is a retired professor of history and philosophy at De Anza College, Cupertino, California, where he created a four-quarter course, Intro- duction to Eastern Philosophy, dealing with the historical development of the major philosophical traditions of Asian countries. That, plus extensive travel and study in Asia, resulted in the production of the college-level text Awaken- ing: An Introduction to the History of Eastern Thought. Other books by Patrick S. Bresnan include Them: The Adventures of a College Classroom Teacher (2012) and The Amazing Meditation Revolution: West Meets East ( 2013).

Awakening

An Introduction to of Eastern Thought

Sixth Edition

Patrick S. Bresnan

I~ ~~o~!!~n~~~up NEW YORK AND LONDON

Awakening

An Introduction to the History of Eastern Thought

Sixth Edition

Patrick S. Bresnan

I~ ~?io~!!~~~~up NEW YORK AND LONDON

Sixth edition published 20 I 8 by Routledge 71 I Third Avenue, New York, NY I 00 I 7

and by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park,Abingdon , Oxon, OXl4 4RN

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2018 Taylor & Francis

The right of Patrick S. Bresnan to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved . No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic , mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks , and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe .

Previous editions published by Pearson Education, Inc. 2003, 2007 , 2010,2013

Fifth edition published by Routledge 2016

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this title has been requested

ISBN: 978-1-138-06394-5 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-138-06395-2 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-16068-9 (ebk)

Typeset in Goudy by Apex Co Vantage, LLC Printed and bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY

Visit the companion website: http://patrickbresnan .com

Contents

List of Figures Acknowledgements Introduction

PART I

Hinduism and Related Traditions of South Asia

1 India before the Vedas The Lay of the Land 3 South Asia before the Vedic Age 5 The Theory of Indo-Aryan Migrations 8 Varna: The Caste System 14 The Brahmin Caste 17 Questions for Discussion 21

2 Veda and the Vedas Yajna: The Vedic Sacrifice 23 The Vedic Pantheon 28 An Overview of Vedic Cosmology 37 Questions for Discussion 41

3 Introdu ction to the U pani shads Key Elements of the Upanishads 49 An Overview of Vedanta Cosmology 68 Questions for Discussion 71

4 The Bhagavad Gita The Bhagavad Gita and the Mahabharata 75 The Opening Scene 80

ix xi

xiii

3

22

42

73

vi Contents

The Bhagavad Gita as Metaphor 81 The Awakened Person 83 Karma Yoga 88 Raja Yoga 90 Bhakti Yoga 92 Questions for Discussion 93

5 Ashtanga Yoga The General Nature of Yoga 96 The “Eight Limbs” of Ashtanga Yoga 103 Questions for Discussion 113

6 Darshana The Orthodox Darshanas 115 The Heterodox Darshanas 127 Questions for Discussion 139

7 The Devotional Movement The Trimurti 143 Ramanuja 154 The Hindu Temple 155 Questions far Discussion 162

95

114

141

8 A Millennium of Strife 163 The Muslim Era 163 The Modern Era 173 Questions for Discussion 181

PART ‘ II Shakyamun i Buddha and the Early Development of Buddhism

9 The Life Story of Shakyamuni Buddha The Palace Youth 186 The Sadhu Years 195 The Awakening 197 The Teaching Years 202 Questions far Discussion 207

183

185

10 Basic Teaching of Shakyamuni Buddha The Doctrine of Anatman 211 The Four Noble Truths 222 The Noble Eightfold Path 234 Questions for Discussion 241

11 Theravada Buddhism The Early Centuries 244 Ashoka 246 Theravada Buadhism 251 Questions for Discussion 261

12 Mahayana Buddhism Diversity and Religious Elements in Mahayana 268 The Nature of Buadha 269 Madhyamaka 275 Yogacara 285 The Bodhisattva 288 Artistic Expression in Early Mahayana 29 2 Questions for Discussion 297

PART Ill

Contents vii

208

243

262

Non-Buddhist Traditions of East Asia 2 99

13 Confucius and Confucianism 301 Confucius 305 Mencius 317 Other Voices from the Period of a Hundred Philosophers 320 Later Developments in the Evolution of Confucianism 326 Questions for Discussion 332

14 Daoism 334 Dao De Jing (Tao Te Ching) 335 Zhuang Zi (Chuang Tzu) 345 Religious Daoism 350 Questions for Discussion 359

15 Shinto 361 The Shinto Creation Story 363 The Shinto Shrine and Festival 365

viii Contents

Historical Development of Shinto 370 Questions for Discussion 374

PART IV

Buddhism in China and Japan

16 Early Buddhism in China Buddhism in the Tarim Basin 378 Tiantai Buddhism 382 Huayan Buddhism (Hua-Yen) 385 Pure Land Buddhism 385 Persecution and Recovery 391 Questions for Discussion 393

375

377

17 Tibetan Buddhism 395 The Establishment of Buddhism in Tibet 401 The General Character of Buddhism in Ti.bet 404 An Historical Overview of Buddhism in Tibet 420 Questions for Discussion 436

18 Chan Buddhism Bodhidharma 443 Huineng 455 After Huineng 466 Questions for Discussion 483

439

19 Zen Buddhism 485 Japan before Zen 485 Rinzai and Soto Zen 489 The Zen Monastery 502 Zen and the Arts 519 Questions for Discussion 5 28

Works Cited Index

530 532

Figures

1.1 Map of South Asia 1 1.2 An Indus seal (No. 1) showing the mysterious pictographs 7 3.1 Sadhus leaving a temple in Nepal 44 5.1 An Indus seal (No. 2) showing the figure in the posture

of Bhaddhakonasana 107 6.1 A beautiful sculptured example of a yab/yum; perhaps

ninth-century Tibet 138 7.1 Shiva, from an exterior panel of the Kandariya Mahadeva;

Khajuraho, India 151 7.2 Linga and Yoni; South India 153 7.3 Shiva and Parvati from an exterior panel of the Kandariya

Mahadeva 154 7.4 The Kandariya Mahadeva; Khajuraho, India 156 7.5 Tantric inspired exterior panel of the Kandariya

Mahadeva 159 7.6 A typical gopuram of the southern-style temple 160 8.1 The Taj Mahal; Agra, India 164 9.1 Map of Asia 183 9.2 Shakyamuni Buddha with right hand in the posture

of bhumisparsha ( earth touching) 199 11.l A Theravadin monk 251 12.1 Too bad this Thai stupa isn’t in color. The entire surface

is covered in small gold tiles 294 12.2 The great bronze Buddha at Kamakura, Japan 295 14.l The Daoist yin-yang symbol 352 15.1 The famous Torii Gate at Miajima on the Inland

Sea, Japan 364 17.1 A Tibetan dorje 405 17.2 A fine example of a modern thangka, painted in the

traditional style 411

x Figures

1 7 .3 The Potala; Lhasa, Tibet 18.1 Bodhidharma 19.1 The kare-sansui at Ryoan-ji Monastery; Kyoto, Japan

All images are available to view in color at www.patrickbresnan.com.

433 444 518

Acknowledgements

And now the Sixth Edition, with a new publisher and a lot of great new peo- ple to thank. Let me just shine the thank-you spotlight on a few of the most prominent ones. Certainly the first in line is Andy Beck, Senior Editor for Philosophy at Routledge. Andy is the one who has to take the blame. He accepted the manuscript in the first place, and got the wheels rolling, and roll they have thanks to his excellent guidance . In line right behind Andy is Vera Lochtefeld, Editorial Assistant for Philosophy. Vera knows the program well; her most capable hands did a lot of the heavy lifting early on. Thanks to Ruth Berry, the Production Editor for Humanities at Routledge, and a very special thanks to Autumn Spalding, Project Manager, truly an eagle-eyed perfection- ist, very understanding, and a total joy to work with.

I also wish to express my gratitude to Roger Mack, whose support and wise counsel have been most appreciated. Also, my gratitude to Kathleen Daniels for her insightful help in reviewing tricky passages, as well as critiquing the videos for the companion website. And speaking of the website, thanks to Mark Branum of Stanford, whose wisdom regarding all things pertaining to a website was most appreciated. And, of course, thanks to my most understand- ing and helpful wife, Elizabeth, who has been through this process with me six times now. And we’re still married! While I’m at it, I suppose I should thank Herr Johannes Gutenberg as well. If I had to make copies with ink and a quill pen, I don’t think there would be more than one.

In addition, Nilgiri Press (Tamales, CA) and Eknath Easwaran (founder of the Blue Mountain Center of Meditation) granted permission for reprinting parts of the following works, copyright 1985 and 2007:

Ea waran, Eknath. 1985. The Bhagavad Gita. __ . 1986. The Dhammapada. __ . 1987. The Upanishads.

Introduction

The first edition of Awakening was published in 1999. At that time the Cold War was history, and progress toward a peaceful and prosperous world com- munity actually seemed possible. Then came September 11, 2001. After that horrendous day, the whole world changed. The spirit of optimism and com- munality was dead. It was replaced by pessimism, fear, terrorist brutality, and divisions between nations. A comment from the preface of the last edition is still quite apt:

“Spaceship Earth” is passing through a time of unprecedented change, and its attendant turmoil. More than ever, the need for compassionate understanding among the various communities that make up modem global society has become essential. The overarching goal of this book is to awaken you, the reader, to the great riches of the traditions examined in this book, and hopefully to motivate you to choose to become a part of the solution to the challenges we can expect to encounter as the undoubt- edly very exciting twenty-first century continues to unfold.

It is important to understand that Awakening is not simply an historical record. Rather, Awakening follows the millennia-long evolution of a tradition that is one of humanity’s greatest achievements. From the very beginning, its central concern has been, and continues to be, the pervasive nature of human suffering; its cause and its solution. The beginning of this journey is to be found in ancient India, when the tradition that would come to be known as Hinduism first emerged and grew. It was out of Hindu India that Buddhism also emerged and grew. From its Indian homeland, Buddhism continued to evolve and pread throughout all parts of East Asia, absorbing into itself strong influence from other native traditions, such as Confucianism, Daoism, and Shinto. All of us alive today are the beneficiaries of that evolution. We need only to look and to understand.

Awakening is divided logically into four parts, which together present a broad overview of that millennia-long evolution. India is the setting for Part I. We begin with the Vedas, the seminal scriptures that gave form to the culture

xiv Introduction

and philosophy of early Hinduism. The Vedic Age gave way to the Age of the Upanishads, mystical compositions that carried Hinduism far from the fundamentally theistic character of the Vedas. The following chapters in Part I expand on the evolution of Upanishadic thought, both philosophical and mystical, and carry us through the difficult centuries of the Muslim Conquest up to the present time.

Part II carries the story forward. Its primary concern is the formative period of Buddhism, which in many important ways grew out of Hinduism. We begin with the life and teaching of Buddha himself. Following that, we will examine the first organized movements in Buddhism. The Theravada school of Bud- dhism developed first, followed by the vastly larger and more complex Mahay- ana. Many distinct schools of Buddhism developed within the umbrella of Mahayana, everything from the very “religious” to the decidedly philosophical.

In Part III, we will sidetrack a bit to examine three non-Buddhist traditions native to China and Japan, specifically Confucianism, Daoism, and Shinto. These would strongly influence the nature of developing Buddhism. That was especially true with regard to Daoism.

In Part IV, we return to the varied evolution of Buddhism, beginning with its early development in China. From there we climb up to the high country of Tibet to examine the unusual and entrancing world of Tibetan Buddhism (more correctly known as Vajrayana Buddhism). Returning to China proper, we next take up the highly important subject of Chan Buddhism. And, in the final chapter we explore Zen Buddhism. Although Zen was originally a direct transplant of Chan Buddhism from China, over time it developed into a dis- tinctly Japanese tradition.

It is interesting to note that all of the traditions examined in this book are alive and well today, and are contributing in significant ways to the continuing evolution of human society.

In this sixth edition, as with every new edition, you will find some new sections, some expanded and rewritten sections, and a thoroughgoing over- haul of the entire book. The most important of the new material includes a significant revision of the chapters dealing with Ashtanga Yoga, the basic teaching of Shakyamuni Buddha, the Madhyamaka section in the Mahayana Buddhism chapter, and the Chan Buddhism chapter. References and source material have been updated. The companion website has been overhauled and includes new photos and two new videos. All in all, I am satisfied that the sixth edition represents a major improvement over all that has come before. Welcome; I hope you enjoy the journey.

Patrick S. Bresnan Los Gatos, California

January, 2017

I would genuinely love to hear from you. Don’t be reluctant to write. bresnanpatrick@yahoo.com

Int roduction xv

A Note about Punctuation and Transliteration

Two systems exist for spelling Chinese words in the Western alphabet: pinyin and Wade-Giles. Pinyin, the more recently developed of the two, attempts to overcome some of the phonetic and spelling prob lems of the Wade-Giles system. In Wade-G iles, for example, Tao is spelled with a “T ” even though it is meant to be pronounced more like a “D,” which is the correct spelling in pinyin. Pinyin is rapidly replacing Wade-Giles, and shall be the system of choice in this book. In instances where it seems appropriate, I will include the Wade-Giles spelling in parentheses.

Chapter 2

Veda and the Vedas

As mentioned in Chapter 1, the word Veda is derived from the Sanskrit root vid, which means “to know.” In the present context, it refers to knowledge of the highest sort, made available to all through the revelations of ancient seers. Ordinary truth emerges from the practical experience of the community, the stuff of daily life. It is added to by everyone over time. Veda, on the other hand, concerns matters of great moral and religious importance-the meaning of life and death, for example, and the proper relationship between gods and humans. Veda is sacred knowledge. By way of a rough analogy, we could say that in a Jewish or Christian community, knowledge about weather forecast- ing would be ordinary truth, but the Bible would be Veda.

Although it is probable that the roots of what would become the Vedas stretch far back into the distant past, the Vedas took on their mature form dur- ing the earliest historical period following the spread of the Sanskrit language in India, roughly between 1500 and 1000 BCE. This historical era is called the Vedic Age. With very few exceptions, the Vedas were produced by members of the Brahmin class and, in particular, by an elite group of scholars referred to as rishis. A rishi is a seer, an especially learned person who has become the teacher of others. Members of the Brahmin caste were the sole guardians and interpreters of the Vedas. Brahmins alone managed the great events at which the Vedas were chanted, events that were intended to result in a com- ing together of gods and humans.

The Vedas were organized into four great collections. They share much in common, but each of the four has its own general emphasis. The earliest, and by far the most significant, is the Rig Veda. The Rig Veda is a long and loosely organized collection of hymns and chants associated with sacrifices to the vari- ous gods. Composition of the Rig Veda probably began as early as 1500 BCE, but it’s unlikely that it was organized into a comprehensive work until close to 1200 BCE.

The Rig Veda, and the others that followed it, were not meant to be liter- ary works in the sense of epic books. The Rig Veda is an aggregation of suk- tas (hymns), each of which was a long collection of verses chanted aloud by Brahmin priests at sacrificial rites. When completed, the Rig Veda consisted

Veda and the Vedas 23

of 1,028 separate suktas. These were in turn organized into ten mega-sections called mandalas. That kind of organization was an aid to memorizing, much needed before the advent of writing.

The groundwork for the great sacrificial rituals was laid down in the Rig Veda, but it was followed in time by other Vedas. Two other Vedas closely associated with the Rig Veda are the Sama Veda and the Yajur Veda. In the Sama Veda, certain verses of the Rig Veda were arranged for chanting in the form of song. The Yajur Veda is essentially a collection of formulas and instructions concerned with the correct arrangement of the ritual. It was essential that everything be done absolutely correctly.

The fourth of the Vedas is the Atharva Veda. It stands apart from the other three and was composed considerably later than the others. The Atharva Veda is mainly concerned with shamanistic formulas, spells, and mystical incanta- tions. It is widely believed that pre-Aryan Dravidian traditions are “peeking through” in the Atharva Veda. Nonetheless, this too came to be part of the great sacrifice rituals, and a priest called the Atharvan had the role of incorpo- rating the appropriate chants from this Veda.

Thus the Vedas-Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Atharva-provided the Brahmin priests with all the sacred verses they needed to properly conduct the great rituals of yajna, the Vedic sacrifice. The Vedas were their link to the gods. And, in the Vedas, the gods are endlessly praised, invoked, flattered; it some- times gets a bit monotonous to the modern reader. But behind all the praise, of course, is the real point of it all-the request.

Let’s not lose sight of what this grand ritual was all about; the gods had something the people wanted-power over the forces of nature. And the Vedic rituals were their way of persuading the gods to use that power in the “right” way. But we must not assume that men and women of the Vedic Age were a dismal lot living in a state of constant worry. On the contrary, they seem to have been an optimistic, energetic people. They worshipped the gods in order to maximize the good things of life. True, they knew the weight of fear, and they prayed for freedom from illness and drought. But most of the time they were beseeching the gods for long life, success in battle, lots of healthy chil- dren, abundant food and drink-that sort of thing. The overall impression is of a people who enjoyed life and wanted to get the most out of it.

For the most part, the Vedas are not concerned with what we would call philosophical matters; they are clearly religious works-but not entirely reli- giou . Threaded throughout the Vedas are questions and speculations that are like the seeds from which the lush garden of Hindu thought will later grow. In other words, the Vedas are “square one.”

Yajna:The Vedic Sacrifice

Our modern way of life is so scrubbed clean of ritual that it is difficult for u to imagine what life was like in earlier times when practically everything

24 Hinduism and Related Traditions

involved some sort of ritual. Vedic society, like most ancient cultures, was seemingly obsessed with ritual. There were ritual-laden ceremonies for vir- tually everything of significance in life: for coming of age, for marriage, for death, for planting the crops, for going to war, for preparing food, and on and on. Ritual touched just about everything in life. The head of the family might officiate at minor rituals, but really important rituals were reserved for the Brahmin priests.

For sheer drama and excitement, nothing could have surpassed the great ceremony yajna, the Vedic sacrifice. In a time of crisis, or perhaps on the occa- sion of some special celebration-when one or more of the gods was to be approached directly-the Brahmin priests could put together a very moving event. A sacred fire was the central element of those ceremonies, and there- fore it is customary to refer to such an event as a Vedic fire sacrifice.

The place where the sacrifice was to occur was holy ground, a special piece of land presumably set apart from the living area of the community. In those early days it was always an outdoor event; the familiar Hindu temple was still a thing of the distant future. It all began with the construction of a low plat- form made of mud bricks. This was the altar where the sacred fire would be located. Near the fire-altar, a great wooden stake was driven into the ground. The Rig Veda informs us that this sacred object would then be anointed and adorned with colorful ornaments . There is some evidence that this stake then became the fulcrum for a large circle etched in the ground, which was then highlighted with rocks or colored sand. The circle defined the sacred space, within which only the Brahmin priests were allowed to enter.

When all was ready, the ceremony would begin with the kindling of the sacred fire and the sounding of large conch shell horns. The fire was the heart of the sacrifice. It was believed to be the living presence of the god Agni. The offering of the sacrifice would be given into the center of the fire, the “mouth” of Agni, to be consumed in the flames and carried as smoke to the gods. The fire might be small, but more likely it was a roaring bonfire. In the Rig Veda, we find references to the fire as the “bellowing” of Agni.

The priests were dressed in their ceremonial robes, possibly including head- dresses of antler or bull’s horns. The Brahmin who conducted the sacrifice was called the Hotri. He was the high priest and was assisted by priests of lesser rank, including the Udgatri, who chanted verses from the Sama Veda and whose special function was to summon the gods to the celebration with the hypnotic beauty of his song. The Brahmins believed that certain musical tones held magical qualities. The Udgatri was skilled in droning for a very long time in these tones. Another priest, the Adhvaryu, held the responsibility for overseeing the whole production. In a sense, he was the stage manager, and as he went about his work he chanted aloud verses from the Yajur Veda.

Yet another Brahmin, highly knowledgeable in the details of ritual proce- dure, actually presided over the ceremony, though he took no active part in it. He sat to the side and carefully observed everything, making sure that every

Veda and the Vedas 25

detail was performed correctly. Correct performance was believed to be abso- lutely essential if the sacrifice was to be successful.

The victim-offering of the sacrifice would be ritually sacrificed and some part of it given to the flames so that the spirit of the victim could be carried to the gods. The rest would be consumed by the participants. There is some evidence that human sacrifice was practiced in the early days, but it would seem that it was not the usual form. Noblemen of the Vedic Age were horse- breeding people and cattle raisers. In their eyes, no sacrificial offering could be more valuable than a fine stallion or a bull. The ritual offering of a fine horse was known as ashvamedha. Given the great love that the Indo-Aryans felt for the horse, to sacrifice one would almost be on a par with human sacrifice. Only a king, successful in battle, was entitled to sponsor the ashvamedha. An excel- lent white stallion would be let loose to wander wherever it wanted for one year. It was followed by a group of warriors who made a note of where it trave- led, for the king had a right to claim all of the land included in its wanderings. When the year was over the horse was driven back to the place of sacrifice, where it was ritually killed and cut up in preparation for the ashvamedha. As a part of the ceremony, the king’s wife would join the just-killed horse under a cover and simulate sexual intercourse with it.

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